LONDON
The armed forces defending Europe’s largest countries, which are all subject to extensive civilian oversight, could serve as a model as Turkey’s armed forces are restructured after last month’s coup attempt.
The military command structure and recruitment policies in France, Germany, Italy and the U.K. have all developed according to each country’s traditions. What all four of them have common is a strong culture of civilian control.
Anadolu Agency correspondents around Europe examined how the armed forces operate in four European NATO member states.
France
The president -- currently Francois Hollande -- holds the title of commander-in-chief but it is the prime minister who is responsible for the day-to-day running of France’s armed forces.
The one exception is the gendarmerie, one of the country’s two national police forces, which has military status and is responsible to the interior ministry.
Privates in the French armed forces, who can join at 18, do not require higher education qualifications but more senior ranks are trained at university level. The highest military officer positions can only be occupied by those who hold undergraduate or graduate degrees.
Many of the country’s military elite pass through the Ecole Polytechnique, an academy founded during the French revolution that has produced leading figures in science, government, business and engineering as well as the military.
Germany
The military is controlled by Germany’s federal government and the role of the military is largely defined by post-World War II realities, especially the desire to avoid the militarism that helped usher in the Nazis.
For this reason civilian oversight of the Bundeswehr, or federal army, is robust.
The Bundeswehr was established in 1955 and is led by the inspector general, who reports directly to the defense minister and is the most senior advisor to the federal government on military matters.
Individual service chiefs, including air, sea and land forces, report to the inspector general but can also liaise directly with the minister.
The chancellor -- currently Angela Merkel -- can assume direct command of the armed forces in time of war.
The Bundeswehr trains some of its personnel at specially-designated universities in Hamburg and Munich offering more than 60 different courses. Servicemen and women can enlist between the ages of 17 and 23.
Italy
Most of the Italian armed forces are organized under the chief of the defense staff, who reports directly to the defense minister. The one exception is the coast guard, which is part of the navy but controlled by the infrastructure and transport ministry.
The chief of defense staff is appointed jointly by the president, the prime minister and the defense minister on recommendation of the entire Cabinet.
Unlike Turkey, the most senior military appointments in Italy -- including air, sea and land forces commanders -- are made exclusively by civilians.
Major decisions within the armed forces are taken by the Supreme Council of Defense, chaired by the president and consisting of six ministers and the defense chief.
Enlistment age is between 18 and 25.
U.K.
Being an island nation, Britain’s armed forces have a strong naval tradition, although the country is proud of also having established the world’s first specialized air force in 1918.
The commander-in-chief of the U.K. military worldwide is Queen Elizabeth II and all members of the armed forces pledge allegiance to the monarch. However, it is the prime minister and secretary of defense who are the civilians in charge of the military’s day-to-day affairs and decide defense policy.
The chief of defense staff is Britain’s senior military commander and is appointed from among the head of the Royal Navy, army or Royal Air Force. He also serves as the senior military adviser to the government.
Britain ended conscription shortly in 1960 and runs a fully professionalized armed forces. U.K. citizens are permitted to enlist from the age of 16. Lower ranks are not required to hold qualifications but officers must hold at least seven secondary school qualifications including English and mathematics.
